Environmental problems stem from the absence orincompleteness of these characteristics of property rights. When rightsto resources are defined and easily defended against invasion, allindividuals or corporations,whether potential polluters or potential victims, have an incentive toavoid pollution problems. When air or water pollution damages aprivately owned asset, the owner whose wealth is threatened will gainby seeing—in court if necessary—that the threat is abated. In Englandand Scotland, for example, unlike in the United States, the right tofish for sport and commerce is a privately owned, transferable right.This means that owners of fishing rights can obtain damages andinjunctions against polluters of streams. Owners of these rightsvigorously defend them, even though the owners are often small anglers’clubs with modest means. Fishers clearly gain, but there is a cost tothem also.